The Peacock’s Heritage: A Victorian Tale of Love, Loss, and Resilience by Sasha Stephens; An All-Encompassing Historical Fiction Novel of An Irish-American Woman’s Eventful Life

 The Peacock’s Heritage: A Victorian Tale of Love, Loss, and Resilience by Sasha Stephens; An All-Encompassing Historical Fiction Novel of An Irish-American Woman’s Eventful Life

By Julie Sara Porter

Bookworm Reviews 

This review is also on Reedsy Discovery.

Spoilers:   Sasha Stephen’s The Peacock’s Heritage A Victorian Tale of Love, Loss, and Resilience is one of those Historical Fiction Novels in which you follow the protagonist through several important events and various stages of their lives. 

In this case, said protagonist is Brigid Power McGrath Hayes Lansdowne. The book sees her through poverty, English Rule over the Irish, the Potato Famine, the creation of the Fenian Brotherhood, immigration to England, United States, and the Caribbean, political rebellion, women’s rights, her careers as an accountant, writer, and philanthropist, three marriages, three children, four grandchildren, many close friendships, deaths of friends and family members, and a change in status from poverty to wealth.

We first meet Brigid in the 1830’s as a tenant farmer’s daughter. She endures life with an abusive father, a gentle vulnerable mother, and five noisy siblings. She already shows a resourceful and independent nature. When her father abandons the family, originally periodically and then permanently, Brigid takes care of the household and joins her brothers in gathering peat. She also shows a keen mathematical analytical mind when she manages the family budget (a skillset that proves to be useful in her later career as an accountant and bookkeeper).

Some of the emotionally hardest passages to read are those concerning the Potato Famine and the impact that it has on Ireland, particularly on Brigid’s family. She and her siblings reveal all of the physical and psychological pain that comes from starvation including emaciated bodies, inaction, fever, hallucinations, and weakened immune systems. In one particularly scary moment, one of Brigid’s brothers succumbs to fever while he hallucinates demons attacking him. It is nightmarish as families are forced to eat dirt from the ground, what remains of animals, and fight one another for the few meager scraps that they can get. It takes a strong person to survive such an ordeal but fortunately Brigid is that kind of person.

Brigid’s independence and bad temper shine through when she calls a priest out on his platitudes that speak of lofty thoughts but little practical assistance. She also rails against her father over 

 his relationship with his mistress whom he eventually lives with. Brigid is someone who certainly knows her own mind and isn’t content in taking a submissive subordinate role to anyone.This resourcefulness and independence come in handy when her father arranges a marriage with a much older farmer and she runs away to Dublin where she carves out a life of her own.

In Dublin Brigid begins a bookkeeping career and makes many friends including an interfaith couple, Irish rebels, and various other citizens. One of the most important is Niall McGrath, a banker who is part of the Saor-Eire (Free Ireland) Movement. It is Niall that inspires Brigid to become part of a group that wants Ireland to break free from English rule and become an independent country. For someone who is as independent minded as Brigid, the thought of a life without English rule is quite appealing, especially since she personally saw how wealthy landowners treated people like her family and many of the English laws and backhanded assistance that prolonged the Famine. 

Brigid’s marriages symbolize her ascension and stages in life. Her marriage to Niall is youthful and passionate and is shared between two people who are looking forward to starting their lives. They are in the early stages of their careers and jump headlong into the Rebellion cause by attending protests and demonstrations, eventually moving to England to take an even more active part. They are in a higher place than Brigid was previously, though not yet wealthy. There is almost a careless giddy demeanor that carries over into their marriage as Brigid and Niall become part of the larger world and try to define what concepts like “freedom,” “love,” “sacrifice,” and “independence” really mean. 

Brigid’s second marriage comes from a different place. It is to Finnbar Hayes, a college professor and  leader of Saor-Eire then the Fenian Brotherhood, which is more drawn to violent actions against English oppressors. By the time that she and Finn begin courting, Brigid has experienced loss and is trying to rebuild her life with two small children. Though young, she is more aware of loss and pain and is desperate to hold onto those she loves knowing that she could lose them. There is less recklessness and more caution in her feelings towards Finn. Finn being a leader of the Movement rather than a member like Niall shows awareness of responsibility and larger stakes in his actions. If Niall went down, the Brotherhood would lose a dedicated member but if Finn went down, an entire Movement would fall along with all of the member’s friends, families and sympathetic allies. This involvement widens Brigid’s circle of friends as she empathizes with their plight.

Brigid’s marriage to Finn also changes her status as well. When they emigrate to the United States, Brigid and Finn pursue careers that bring security and respectability. For the first time, Brigid is in a financially secure position and is not only able to care for herself and her family but others as well. Finn obtains a professorship and remains involved with politics and the Fenians while Brigid helps various people by donations and volunteer work such as tutoring and mentoring. She also writes various articles and books that illustrate her views. Both she and Finn now become leaders and spokespeople of their communities as they embrace mid-life. 

Suspense plays a large part of Brigid’s life during her first two marriages. There are many secret meetings between characters that have code names. There are demonstrations and revolutionary acts which result in violence and prison sentences. While Brigid is in England, a young boy becomes her eyes and ears giving her warnings about raids or betrayal. These exchanges remind the Reader that lives hang in the balance and it takes a lot of courage and resilience to take action against an authority that thrives off of economic divide, rigid class distinctions, and imperial ambitions.

Brigid’s early marriages are filled with the tension of people who are caught up in causes that are greater than themselves. Sometimes that involvement requires them to sacrifice much: the chance of marital serenity, time with loved ones, trust of others, and even a long life with the one whom they love.

Brigid’s final marriage to John Lansdowne, a retired sea captain, is borne from loneliness and a desire not for passion or respectability, but for companionship. John is sympathetic to various causes but is not politically involved which is probably a relief for her. Since Brigid had been politically active in her youth and marriages, she is more than willing to embrace the serenity that comes with age. She has the finances to care for herself and those that she is close to and does not have to live with the political tension and financial insecurity that hounded her younger years. 

In response to that security, many of the conflicts in Brigid’s life are more personal particularly when she and John settle in Barbados. She discovers some things about herself and uses that information to continue helping others. She becomes personally involved in the lives of friends and family members by helping them move forward in their paths in life. It becomes just as much their journeys as it is Brigid’s. She is helping them in their early steps when she was forced to navigate hers in Dublin by herself. She wants to be the mother, mentor, and friend that was unavailable to her. 

 In some ways. The Peacock’s Heritage is reminiscent of Captains and the Kings by Taylor Caldwell, which was also about the Irish immigrant experience in the United States and covers an extensive historical period from the Irish Potato Famine to the early 20th Century, however the presentations couldn’t be more different. Captains and the Kings was about a man who claws and connives his way to the top, becomes embittered by his wealth, faltering relationships, and deceitful colleagues, and ends up surrounded by the trappings of his riches but utterly alone. The Peacock’s Heritage is about a woman who is also an Irish immigrant who climbs to the top of high society but instead is enriched by her widening circle of friends and family and becomes more involved with her community that carries over into four countries. It reminds us that true wealth is remembering where you came from and lending a helping hand to those who are going through the same struggles and haven’t reached that point yet. 

Reading a book like The Peacock’s Heritage is a dizzying and at times overwhelming experience. When the book is closed, the Reader is exhausted as they felt that they lived a whole life with Brigid, but they are also glad that they got to know such a fascinating dynamic character during such interesting times.

Weekly Reader: From The Ashes (A Ravenwood Mystery) by Sabrina Flynn; Engaging Historical Mystery Looks Like The Beginning of A Beautiful Partnership

 

Weekly Reader: From The Ashes (A Ravenwood Mystery) by Sabrina Flynn; Engaging Historical Mystery Looks Like The Beginning of A Beautiful Partnership

By Julie Sara Porter

Bookworm Reviews

Spoilers: Sabrina Flynn's The Ravenwood Mysteries are sort of like what would happen if Sherlock Holmes died for real and John Watson and Irene Adler teamed up and took over the consulting detective business at good old 221B Baker Street.

The book, From The Ashes, is an engaging mystery which gives us two protagonists taking separate journeys on opposite sides of the law.

San Francisco detective Atticus James Riot has returned after a three year absence following the death of his partner and mentor, Zephaniah Ravenwood. Ravenwood's death cut Riot deeply and he is not sure that he can or should continue. However, like a police officer called to take one last case before retirement, Riot is called back into the fold. His associate, Tim, refers him to the case of Isobel Amsel Kingston, wife of attorney Alex Kingston who is reported missing while on her way to visit her family in Sausalito. Riot reluctantly takes the case.

 While Riot is investigating Isobel's disappearance, we also get to peer into what is going on with Isobel. She has managed to flee her kidnappers and other potential assailants. It eventually becomes clear that she isn't missing so much as she is escaping which calls into question her marriage to Kingston.

Isobel and Riot's stories do not physically converge until towards the end so that gives both characters chances to take charge of their own story and develop into interesting characters. Riot is a great detective, both intelligent and physically active, but he has a huge inferiority complex. He isn't afraid to dig and ask complicated questions until he finds out the truth. His first encounter with Kingston shows him as someone who isn't afraid to ask tough questions to anyone, no matter how rich, powerful, privileged, or intimidating that they are.

Riot also shows understanding and kindness to many of the economically disadvantaged and minorities as when he discovers Old Sue, an impoverished alcoholic is dead. She is his only link between Isobel's disappearance and her former life in Sausalito. He is upset about that missed opportunity but also treats Sue like a human being whose life had value. There are some implications that his dislike of the wealthy and powerful and concern for women, minorities, and the poor stems from his childhood, particularly something concerning his mother. This reason is not fully elaborated upon but helps explain a lot of his character and why he does everything that he can to make sure true justice is meted out to those who need it and who can't always trust the police or Pinkerton's (the latter of which Ravenwood and Riot once worked for) to bring justice forward.

One of Riot's biggest hindrances is not with a suspect or Isobel's family or husband. It's within himself. He is still haunted by Ravenwood's presence. Sometimes literally since the deceased detective appears in his dreams to criticize Riot's handling of the case or to offer suggestions. Now Riot could be haunted by Ravenwood's ghost (considering the other books that I have read that is a distinct possibility.), but more than likely that may not be the case. 

Ravenwood's presence is still strongly felt by Riot and those who knew him. The detective agency is still in his name. (Heck the mystery series is named after him even though he's been dead three years before this book begins.) Riot is insecure about following up to that legacy which is why he wants to retire after this case. Ravenwood's suggestions may not be messages from the dead but are instead steps that Riot already knows and doubts himself to follow. Ravenwood's visitations might be his own subconscious judging and advising him.

Besides Riot, we also follow Isobel's adventure and we do not see a damsel in distress. She is a pretty tough, competent and strong woman. In her desire to escape her marriage, she has many plans. She evades kidnappers in a clever and resourceful way and disguises herself to avoid being found. 

She also has many contacts who will help and lie for her if need be. One of them is her twin brother, Lotario. Isobel continued to maintain contact with him after he was revealed to be gay. That link between siblings makes him an ally that provides a helpful escape route for Isobel. Like Riot, her ability to treat others well particularly outsiders or those on the outer margins of society proves beneficial. 

Isobel's background as the only girl of several brothers in a wealthy but outdoorsy family allowed her much freedom. This childhood freedom gives her the opportunities to spend most of the book on her own avoiding capture by the police, Kingston, and Riot. During her escape, she proves to be smarter and more capable than many of the people around her. Sometimes, her decisions prove to be a detriment but she always has a second option in mind. The conflict of Isobel escaping and Riot trying to find her is like a chess or tennis match where both parties are evenly matched.

Isobel and Riot's plots are so well developed that it's actually enjoyable when they do meet and unite and combine their talents. There isn't much in the way of romance so much as a sharing of equals who could be a great team.

To paraphrase the famous closing line of Casablanca, this looks like the start of a beautiful partnership.

Classics Corner: Women's Weird: Strange Stories by Women 1890-1949 Edited by Melissa Edmondson; Weird Ghost Story Anthology by Some of the Best Female Authors

 

Classics Corner: Women's Weird: Strange Stories by Women 1890-1949 Edited by Melissa Edmondson; Weird Ghost Story Anthology by Some of the Best Female Authors

By Julie Sara Porter

Bookworm Reviews

Spoilers: The word weird (Old English for "fate or destiny") has often been associated with women, wrote editor Melissa Edmondson. She's not wrong. Greek mythology has the Fates-Clothos, Lachesis, Atropos-three goddesses who weave the fate of humanity. Clothos spun the thread. Lachesis measured the thread. Atropos cut the thread. Norse mythology had the Norns, three goddesses who drew water from their sacred well to nourish Yggsdrael the sacred tree. Urd who told the past, Verdandi who told the present, and Skaldi who foretold the future. There are various triple goddesses in Celtic mythology such as the three forms of Brigid or The Morrigan. Many current Witch spiritual paths worship the Goddess in three forms: Maiden, Mother/Nymph, Crone

Of course, where would Shakespeare's Macbeth be without The Weird Sisters predicting his ascension to kinghood and his downfall by "a man not born of woman" and "when Birnam Wood comes to Dunsinane"?

Melissa Edmondson's  anthology Women's Weird: Strange Stories by Women 1890-1940 lives up to its name. It is filled with ghost stories by many of the most famous female authors and some who should be recognized in the 21st century. The stories are not jump scare stories in the style of Stephen King or H.P. Lovecraft. Instead, the majority of them present an eerie sensibility like an old familiar ghost story told in a new way. 

The best stories are: 

"The Weird of the Walfords" by Louisa Baldwin

Cursed objects are as prevalent in hauntings as ghosts themselves. The Hope Diamond. James Dean's Porsche Spider. The Annabelle Doll. Sometimes the curses have more to do with the people that are being cursed than the object itself.

That's certainly true with this creepy story. Humphrey Walford, has inherited not only the family estate but is the not so proud owner of the Walford Family old carved oak four poster bedstead. For three hundred years, every Walford has been born and died in that bed. When he becomes lord of the manor, Humphrey vows that he will not let this arbitrary curse control how he dies so he orders the bed destroyed. Well anyone who has read any story of a curse ever, knows that destruction of the object does nothing. Even after he marries and becomes a father, Humphrey can't escape the inevitable.

This story is fascinating as Humphrey is at first confident that he can beat  this curse then as circumstances put him right where he doesn't want to be, he becomes more unglued. His skepticism and confidence wavers as the supernatural presence lingers and he has no choice but to accept the inevitable.

"The Giant Wistaria" by Charlotte Perkins Gilman

As anyone who reads this blog knows, one of my favorite short stories is Charlotte Perkins Gilman's "The Yellow Wallpaper".' The creepy atmosphere of a woman driven to near insanity by the rest cure that her husband forces upon her is one of the best crafted short stories in American literature. It is a great combination of psychological horror and feminist literature showing how the limited female roles  can drive some women to breakdowns and other psychological disorders.

Gilman also delivers that gift of horror combined with questioning of women's roles in society with "The Giant Wistaria." 

The story begins during the 17th century when a young woman is the object of a scandal. Her parents seek to force her into marriage and abandon her. Meanwhile, a giant wistaria grows right outside the house.

Centuries later, a married couple and their friends explore their new home. Mrs. Jenny is excited about the prospect that the house contains a ghost to her husband's skeptical dismay. However, she keeps seeing images of a ghostly woman near the wistaria.

This story reflects many of Gilman's most common themes of women trapped by society's constraints. Though this one offers a measure of hope that "The Yellow Wallpaper" does not. The communication between a woman of the past and a woman of the present might finally end up freeing her.

"Kerfol" by Edith Wharton

Another of my favorite authors, Edith Wharton, is represented here. Besides her satires of upper class New Yorkers like The House of Mirth and The Age of Innocence, she also wrote ghost stories. The story represented in this volume, "Kerfol", shows that abuse can still haunt long afterwards.

The Narrator considers buying the property of Kerfol. Of course, there is a haunting story connected to it. The Narrator sees various ghostly dogs hovering around and hears mysterious barking. 

The backstory connected to this haunting is a moving one dealing with domestic and animal abuse. Those who are sensitive to mistreatment of animals might be appalled by the actions of one of the characters and may be pleased by the retribution that they receive.

"Unseen-Unfeared" by Francis Stevens

While they are things of the past, museums of curiosities and sideshows provided much artistic inspiration. Elaine Showalter's A Jury of Her Peers, a comprehensive look at American Literature written by women, said that it was a favorite writing topic for female authors in the 19th and early 29th century. Perhaps because they identified with the outsider status of the show runners and entertainers who paraded themselves before the so-called normal people who were often worse than those that they observed. 

That is certainly true of Francis Stevens "Unseen-Unfeared"." The Narrator is a xenophobic racist asshole who grumbles about the immigrants and people of color that he sees on the streets every day. (This character could have easily been the Narrator of a modern story.) The Narrator sees an advertisement for "The Great Unseen." 

Snootily thinking that it's a museum of fakery, The Narrator pays his dime and tries to ignore his impending sense of dread and evil as he enters.

What starts out as a display showing the wonders of the newly created photography quickly becomes a lot more terrifying. The Narrator sees various creatures in the dark inside the museum including spiders on the walls, monsters with human faces, and a thing that he can't describe but refers to in all caps (THING). 

It's tempting to say that this display is The Showman, Dr. Hodge, being evil by gaslighting The Narrator or is in possession of evil powers but Hodge's diatribe reveals a more subtle side to his character. He talks about the evil that he sees around him. Of course The Narrator's attitude before he entered the Museum can't be discounted. The visions are reactions towards the evil that exists in those who are observing them. The Narrator's loathing of his fellow humans creates the evil that he fears. Even when he thinks that Hodge is gone and the museum is closed, he can't escape the evil that exists inside him.

"The Twelve Apostles" by Eleanor Scott

This story is a combination of ghost story and mystery. Mr. Matthews, an American, buys an English manor actually hoping that there is a ghost or a story behind it. He is then told of Sir Jerome, a 16th century recluse,parish priest, and practicing sorcerer. Sir Jerome's writings reveal him to be a man of great knowledge and curiosity who paid a Faustian bargain for his pursuits. Later a body was found mysteriously dead at the manor. There is also a story of a lost treasure in Jerome's manor.

Matthews's curiosity is overwhelming as he investigates Sir Jerome's history. His trek through the library and a secret room is eerie as he views a portrait of a priest that looks alive and twelve carvings that look intimidating. 

Matthew's curiosity and greed prove to be his undoing as he ignores fear and common sense to pursue this mystery of Sir Jerome and the treasure. It's almost as though Sir Jerome's curiosity and greed has been reincarnated into Matthews. Just as Jerome did, Matthews is practically destined to follow the same path. He almost does. If not for a moment that scares sense into him, he would have ended up like his predecessor.

"The Book" by Margaret Irwin

Evelyn Carnahan (Rachel Weisz), the protagonist of The Mummy said "What harm can come from opening a book?" This short story is Margaret Irwin's way of saying "Uh, plenty of harm actually."

Bored with reading an obvious murder mystery, Mr. Corbett searches his private library for something new to read. In fact he is bored with his usual books and ultimately reading in general. (GASP!) He searches his uncle's theological library before he loses his interest in reading entirely. He chooses a book written in Latin and with strange illustrations. At first, the book is about some secret society but then some new fresh ink appears on the blank pages. The Book tells Corbett that its work isn't done and predicts things that happen in Corbett's life like great wealth and success.

This book has a very Twilight Zone-like feel with the supernatural elements and twist that deals a lot with the protagonist's personality. As the book is written, Corbett's personality becomes more fierce, ambitious, and argumentative towards his family. He then has to make a choice when the price of the book's knowledge becomes too great.

"The Book" reveals the depravity of the main character as Corbett's darker impulses are revealed in the writing. He is willing to put his home, occupation, and family on the line to fill his ambitions. In the end, he proves to be a deplorable cowardly character who only ends his connection to The Book when it affects him personally.

"With and Without Buttons" by Mary Butts

This short story turns the Battle of the Sexes into a Battle of Scares. Two sisters have had enough of a know it all neighbor so they decide to play a prank on him to "create a nightmare." They insist that they don't want to scare him, that they want to have power over him in a way that is not sexual. They want to outsmart him.

The sisters leave a pair of female kid gloves at his house then create a story that it was left by a ghostly woman. Unfortunately, like many stories which start as a prank it turns out the Spirit World has a sick sense of humor.

The sisters like many of the other protagonists in this anthology are not likeable. They put their neighbor through a fear which turns on them. This shows what happens when mortals use the deceased as playthings, they will find themselves to be the ones played with. In their drive to outsmart their neighbor, the sisters prove to be the real fools.

Women's Weird gives the Reader an off-kilter feeling that something's not right with the world. The stories are strange,bizarre, spooky, and yes weird.

Classics Corner: Daisy Miller and Washington Square by Henry James; Two Very Different Female Protagonists Reveal Henry James’ Gift of Capturing the Female Psyche

Classics Corner: Daisy Miller and Washington Square by Henry James; Two Very Different Female Protagonists Reveal Henry James’ Gift of Capturing the Female Psyche

By Julie Sara Porter

Bookworm Reviews

Spoilers: In a previous review of A Turn of the Screw, I wrote about Henry James’ interest in the psychology of his characters.

This is particularly felt in his female characters. Even though he was a male author, he had no problem plowing through the depths of the female mind and how women felt about their roles in society and their individuality. In most of his works, the female characters are the most interesting such as the Narrator of A Turn of the Screw, Wings of the Dove’s Kate Croy, and Portrait of a Lady’s Isabel Archer (my favorite James book which will be reviewed on a future date.).

Two of his most prominent female characters are also in two of his shortest works: Daisy Miller, the protagonist of the novella of the same name and Washington Square’s Catherine Sloper. These two women couldn't be more different in terms of appearance, thoughts, actions, and their relationships. However, in their different ways, they both question and challenge their roles as women and maintain their individuality in a society that frowns on that individuality, especially from a woman.

Daisy Miller is a pretty American flirt taking the obligatory “Grand Tour” of Europe with her mother and brother. In Switzerland, Daisy meets Winterbourne, an American student.
Winterbourne is captivated by Daisy’s beauty and free spirit. She doesn't mind going to sites without an escort (even though it's forbidden for young ladies of her stature) or making statements that would be considered impertinent. When Winterbourne says that he is afraid to introduce Daisy to his domineering aunt, she taunts him. “You shouldn't be afraid. I am not afraid.”

Daisy captivates Winterbourne because she is rebellious, even though she is masquerading as a typical single young woman of her status. She appears to be no different than any other young woman of her age. At one point Winterbourne's aunt confuses her with the other women at the hotel they are staying in. Winterbourne however detects there is something different about her. She doesn't hide behind the etiquette rules of courtship and outright tells Winterbourne how she feels about him.
When Winterbourne tells her that he might go to Rome to visit his aunt in the winter and if he has time he may see her, Daisy says “I don't want you to come for your aunt. I want you to come for me.”

Daisy knows what the courtship rules and rituals are supposed to be. She is supposed to visit relatives, act demure and docile, and wait for her man to show. But by outright telling Winterbourne what she has in mind, she shifts the balance of power during a courtship in her direction.

Daisy's name plays into her character. A daisy is a spring flower and like the season, Daisy Miller is a breath of fresh air and represents new life, new experiences, and new ways of doing and thinking. However, Winterbourne's name suggests the opposite. He is winter, cold, and reliant on old ways and traditions. While winter turns into spring, the two are never together and James’ novella says the same about its two protagonists.

Daisy and Winterbourne's incompatibility reaches its head when they are in Rome. Winterbourne's conservative outlook towards men and women clashes with Daisy's more liberal free spirited ways. He does not approve of her familiarity with an Italian man, Giovanelli and constantly asks if the two are engaged. At one point, he tells her that he doesn't want her to speak to Giovanelli, Daisy sarcastically says “Do you think I mean to use signs?” She is puzzled why this American man feels that he has to have power over her. He keeps warning her to stay away from Italian men because they may take her flirtations the wrong way.

However, he is less concerned about her virtue than he is about his ownership over her.
He is jealous of her flirtations with other men and thinks that Daisy should behave like a respectable woman of her day.

The irony is that Winterbourne himself doesn't exactly have a stellar reputation for fidelity. At the beginning of the novella, his mind is on an unnamed foreign lady. Then at the end after his relationship with Daisy comes to an end, his mind is on another foreign lady. Winterbourne is a product of his time. He lives in a world where the rules are made by men and to enforce women to follow them. Rules that men don't necessarily follow themselves.

Daisy is someone who is so youthful and brings the promise of spring, that winter and age are not on her mind. She behaves very recklessly and puts her health at risk when she accompanies Giovanelli at the Coliseum at night, despite the warning of yellow fever. After she and Giovanelli are caught at the landmark by Winterbourne, she succumbs to the illness and dies.

This trip could be considered a thinly veiled metaphor for a sexual encounter. Daisy had been repeatedly warned not to be alone with Giovanelli so when she succumbs to temptation, she pays for her encounter with her chastity and her life. (Perhaps the yellow fever is a metaphor for syphilis). However, Giovanelli is never seen as predatory and the people that warn her such as Winterbourne and his aunt are filled with the snobbery and hypocrisy of their day. (Remember, Winterbourne's foreign ladies?) Giovanelli even clears Daisy's name posthumously by saying that they were never engaged and that she was completely innocent. So if it was a warning against young ladies having sexual encounters with foreign men, why does it include this curious detail of Daisy's innocence?

There are some hints that Daisy's death is a result of the patriarchal society that surrounds her. She is looked upon as a “Madonna-Whore” by the male characters, particularly Winterbourne. In Geneva, he sees her in purely virginal terms as a young harmless innocent who is all whites and yellows and girlish charm. He defends her from his aunt by saying that her actions are harmless and that she is merely a flirt.

In Rome however, Winterbourne is constantly suspicious of her behavior. All of the traits that he once loved about her, such as her outgoing nature and blunt speech, are now sources of irritation when they are given towards other men. Instead he sees her as someone treacherous who is inviting trouble. Winterbourne doesn't believe Daisy when she says that she and Giovanelli were not engaged, until Giovanelli confirms it until after her death. In Winterbourne's eyes, Daisy corrupted the image he had of her, so she is guilty until proven innocent.

James himself meant the story to be a character study of the young American heiresses that he saw while in Europe who took the Grand Tour to see the sites and to marry a man of title and fortune. This was the era of American heiresses becoming titled ladies such as Winston Churchill's mother, Jennie. Many of these women experienced a wider world than they had seen before, but were required to set the standards for the American women at home. This experience of Americans abroad interested James and was a common theme in his works. He was fascinated by American tourist's insecurities of being from a young nation as compared to these Old World Aristocrats. The Americans in James’ works often struggled to compete with the Europeans and tried to behave according to their standards, even creating tighter standards of their own. In their drive to overcompensate, the American characters lose their authenticity and mannerisms that made them so unique in the first place.

Daisy is authenticity personified. She isn't afraid to be herself, a young flirtatious vibrant spring-like person. She lives for the present only for the moment. She is similar to a mythical character like Persephone who represent a promise of spring, youth, adventure, and rebellion. Unfortunately, youth cannot last forever and the young rebel grows into the older rule maker. For Daisy, that moment never comes.

It is unknown what Daisy may have been like had she settled into marriage and lived to an older age. Maybe she would be like Winterbourne's aunt, a snob looking down on the younger generation of women. Maybe she would be a scandalous figure with multiple marriages trying to recapture her lost youth. She never gets to that age. Instead, she burns out and dies young. Daisy Miller is unable to accept the compromise that comes with age. She cannot play by rules that tell her that she can't speak in a friendly manner to a man without suspicion or that she cannot go to monuments by herself or with her love interest. Instead of accepting the role that she has been given since birth and entering the winter of age, she remains spring-like and youthful forever by dying young.

Daisy concedes defeat the only way that she can and remain true and authentic to herself. She dies young.

Washington Square presents a different character and setting from Daisy Miller but also asks the same questions about the role of women in society. Catherine Sloper is the polar opposite of Daisy in many ways: plain where Daisy is beautiful, shy where Daisy is outgoing. Even the setting favors the internal claustrophobia of swank New York studies and parlor rooms rather than the exterior of old world European castles and monuments. However, Daisy and Catherine both are surrounded by the expectations placed on wealthy 19th century American women and in some ways that still surround women today. Both Daisy and Catherine also have their own ways of questioning and fighting against those expectations.

Catherine Sloper lives in a world that is devoid of emotion and is in favor of reason. She is dominated by her widowed physician father who takes pride in having an analytic mathematical mind. He boasts that he can take “a man's measure” by observation. He can guess the type of person by observing and analyzing their appearance and behavior, like an even scarier Sherlock Holmes.

Sloper is able to fully control and dominate his daughter by using his icy logical analysis.
He controls where Catherine goes, who she associates with, and makes clear that he has the final say in who she marries.

Standing on the opposing side of Dr. Sloper is Aunt Lavinia Penniman, Sloper's widowed younger sister. Romantic where Sloper is Reason, Warm where her brother is cold, Aunt Lavinia tries to steer her niece towards a more sociable nature, but her father commands that she must train the girl to be clever. (“You are good for nothing unless you are clever.”)

Using his measuring, Sloper reasons that Catherine is not beautiful, that goodness makes her insipid, so she might as well be smart. While Sloper's motivations to make Catherine learned and intelligent seems progressive for the day, he only sees Catherine as an object of his making and she can only go from one extreme (very beautiful, outgoing, and good) to another. (very plain, intelligent, and socially awkward). When Catherine reaches 18, Sloper is disappointed that Catherine isn't clever enough and that she doesn't seemingly fit the mold he built for her. He verbally abuses his daughter and considers her ugly and stupid.

Despite this, Catherine's aunts try to help her. Catherine's Aunt Marian Almond throws a party for her daughter's engagement and Aunt Penniman accompanies Catherine. The two meet Morris Townsend, a man-about-town who is handsome, but unemployable and living off of his sister and her family.
Morris and Catherine fall in love and begin courting to Dr. Sloper's chagrin. He bases his information on Aunt Almond's knowledge of Morris and his own observations of the man during interviews. He believes that Morris is a fortune hunter who has only one thing on his mind during his courtship: Catherine's money.

Catherine ends up caught between the two men. Morris demands that she stands up to her father and wait for him. Sloper tells her that he does not approve of her engagement and even threatens to cut her off if she marries him. He is so insistent that Catherine not marry Morris that he alters his will so that Catherine will not inherit money from him should she marry Morris. (He can't do anything about her mother's inheritance, however. That's still hers.)

Morris and Sloper's differing views clash when during an interview Sloper says that Morris belongs to the wrong category. Morris, however, insists that Catherine does not marry a category, she marries an individual. Sloper's intellectual reasoning sorts and categorizes everything and Morris has to remind him that human beings are not like that. They are individuals who contain multitudes and he and Catherine cannot be sorted.

Like he did with the characters in Daisy Miller, Henry James had fun with names. Instead of seasons, Washington Square uses mathematical and urban terms for description. The Sloper's family name is from an algebraic equation.The title Washington Square has a double meaning. Besides being a prominent area in New York City that was the height of wealth and sophistication at the time, the name “Square” is a geometric shape. Catherine and Sloper live in a world of mathematics, measuring and counting the world to fit the doctor's view.

Morris's name is a contrast to the Sloper's mathematically precise world of facts, figures, and sorting. His last name Townsend, reveals him to be a man-about-town and all of the social obligations that come with that role of attending parties and befriending the wealthy elite, a world that Sloper deprives her from. The second half of Morris's name “-end” suggests an end to Catherine's current life and either the decline of her relationship with her fiancé or her father.

Both Sloper and Morris want to own Catherine. Sloper manipulates Catherine's courtship in ways that are in his favor. He orders Morris's sister not to let him marry Catherine. He takes Catherine to Europe solely with the intention of making her forget about Morris. His hold on Catherine is not out of concern for her welfare or that Morris will break her heart. It is out of a selfish obsessive need to control her and to prove himself right.

Like Sloper, Morris has a desire to own and possess Catherine but uses different means. He writes passionate letters to Catherine extolling his love. He tries to convince her to be more sociable and surrender to him.Like Sloper, Morris, too, manipulates a relative. He makes arrangements with Catherine's Aunt Penniman to meet Catherine at her house.

While Morris is more emotional than the intellectual Sloper, he is no less domineering to his fiancée. He constantly insults and gives Catherine ultimatums forcing her to choose between him and her father.

Even Aunt Penniman has her own stake in this. She subtly encourages the romance to continue as if to experience it vicariously. She allows them to meet at her apartment and when Catherine is terrified of her father, Aunt Penniman suggests that she lay in bed and fake an illness to appeal to his sentimental nature. Her romantic nature seems to be inspired by the literature of the time and she tries to shape Catherine and Morris into the romantic couple of her dreams who are torn apart by cruelty but elope and live happily ever after.
Sloper, Morris, and Aunt Penniman see in Catherine what they want to see: an obedient daughter, a loving fiancée, or a passionate romantic. They don't see her for a full woman.

The irony is that Catherine does not hate any of them, especially Sloper and Morris. She does not risk upsetting her father nor ending her engagement. The expectations that others have bestowed upon her have starved her for affection. She willingly submits herself to their control rather than lose them. When they force her to submit to them, she cannot make up her mind because she doesn't want to lose the people whom she believes loves her, but in reality want to own her.

Sloper is right that Catherine and Morris's engagement does not work out but not solely for the reasons that he believes. When Morris learns that Catherine will not inherit her father's money, he breaks things with her. However, his decision is made easier by Catherine's indecision. The indecision is caused by the intense pressure Sloper puts on her. In preventing his daughter's marriage to someone he deemed unsuitable, Sloper becomes part of the reason that the engagement ends.

Sloper's control over Catherine works all too well. The end of her engagement becomes the end of Catherine's emotional outlook. She becomes a creature without emotion, one solely of intellect and reason. She becomes every bit the mathematical analyst that her father was. She becomes Daddy's girl.

Catherine learns the lessons from her father so well that when he suggests that she get married to other men, she refuses. Her heart is not only broken by her failed engagement. It is shattered beyond repair. Sloper feels his age and wants to have a grandchild to inherit and create a legacy. However, Catherine will not allow this, so she refuses to marry or have children.
Sloper squashed Catherine's emotions. Now he has to live with what he has created and knows that his family line will die with him and Catherine.

Catherine's lack of emotion continues long after her father's death when she inherits his money. She is a serious, analytical woman deprived of any feminine institutions. She refuses to play the game of courtship. Even when an older Morris proposes to her again, she flatly turns him down. She knows that her love for him or for anyone else has died.

However, Catherine still has regret and sadness over what her life has become, shown by the final moment when she holds onto her needlework as “if for dear life.” She knows what she has become, but she can't change. She is unable to change.

Instead of dying young, Catherine rebels against the institutions of marriage and primogeniture by aging into permanent singlehood. In claiming her own independence from the people who want her to become the Catherine that they want, Catherine chooses not to marry at all. Her independence is at the expense of emotional connections and she claims it by living in solitude and regret.

Daisy Miller and Washington Square gives us two women who use different means to rebel against the rules of courtship and family. One plays the game, but concedes defeat by dying young. One enters the game, but ultimately chooses not to play at all.